purpose defined  5      your view of your subject   9
general and "real" subjects  10       your view of your reader  15
stating the thesis  17      good and bad theses   18

2 Getting and Using Materials   26

observation   27      interpretation 30
a method of observing and interpreting  30
making inferences from observations  41      kinds of inferences  42
similarities and differences  44      grouping  44      generalizing  45
establishing a causal relation  46      evaluating experience  48

3 Common Patterns of Organization  54

illustration  55      comparison  57      the divided pattern  (a + b)  58
the alternating pattern (a/b + a/b)  59      combining the patterns 61
classification   64      the classification process  66
common errors in classification   68

4 Paragraphs: Units of Development   83

developing paragraphs: four requirements  84      unity  84
completeness  86      order or movement 88
summary: main kinds of paragraph movement  92      coherence  92
revising paragraphs  98      special paragraphs  103
introductory paragraphs  103      transitional paragraphs  106
concluding paragraphs  106

5 Sentences: Patterns of Expression  112

the standard sentence  113      modification  114      coordination  116
subordination  119      the balanced sentence  122
the periodic sentence  123      revising sentences  125
revision for clarity  125      revision for emphasis  127
revision for economy  131      revision for variety  134

6 Diction: The Choice of Words  138

how words mean  139      denotation and connotation  139
euphemism  140      three qualities of good diction  141
appropriateness  141      consistency  143      specificity 145      imagery  150
simile  150      metaphor  151      analogy  152      personification  155
allusion  155      revising diction  157      vagueness  157      jargon  159
triteness 162

7 Style: The Way It Is Written  165

style defined  166      tone  168      informative-affective tone  168
distance  173      persona  174      language  175
some practical advice about style  181

8 Persuasion  190

changing the reader's image  191      fitting the persuasion to the audience  193
trustworthiness  195      knowledgeability  195      fairness  196
freedom from self-interest  198      emotional appeal   201      argument  206
the structure of argument  206      common types of arguments  210
refuting fallacies.  223

xiv CONTENTS

9 The Essay Examination  239

read the question carefully  240      think out your answer before writing  245
write a complete answer  247      do not pad your answer  248

10 The Critical Essay: Writing About Literature  254

prewriting the critical essay  255      situation  263      characters  264
dramatic conflict  264      theme  265      structure  266      symbol  267
irony  268      point of view  268      voice  270      questions of emphasis  277
technical analysis  277      interpretation  280      evaluation  281

11 Using the Library  291

the card catalog  292      classification systems  294      filing rules  294
book catalogues  295      lists of books  296
lists of periodicals and newspapers  296      indexes to periodical literature  296
government documents  298      unabridged dictionaries  298      general
encyclopedias  298      yearbooks  298       specialized reference works  299
the arts  299      biography  300      education  301      history  302
literature  302      mythology and classics  304      philosophy and
psychology  305       religion  306      science and technology  307      social
sciences 308

12 The Research Paper  310

 preview of research procedure  311      the investigative process  312
choosing a subject  312      introductory reading  313
preparing a bibliography  314      sample bibliographical entries  315
note-taking  321      the composing procedure  325
stating the problem or thesis  325      outlining the paper  326
writing the paper  327      documenting the evidence  330
presenting the finished assignment  335

the evolution of English  360      standards of usage  362

S Sentence Structure  365

review of sentence elements  365      period fault and sentence fragment  369
fused sentences  371      run-on sentence  372      comma splice  373
faulty parallelism  375      dangling modifiers  377
shifts in subjects and verbs  378      incomplete constructions  381

D Diction  383

using a dictionary  383      wrong meaning  386      inconsistent diction  386
vague word  386      mixed metaphor  386

W Word Order  387

normal order and accepted inversions  387      ambiguous order  389
awkward separation of elements  390      unemphatic order  390

F Forms of Words  393

principal parts of verbs  393      tense forms  396      case  399
agreement (subject-verb)  403      agreement (pronoun-antecedent)  408
vague pronoun reference  411      faulty complement  412
confusion of adjective-adverb  415

P Punctuation 417

uses of the comma  417     misuse of the comma  426
uses of the semicolon  428      misuse of the semicolon  429
the period  429      question and exclamation marks  430      the colon 431
quotation marks  432      punctuation with quotation marks  433
the apostrophe  435      ellipsis and dash  436
parentheses and brackets  437

xvi CONTENTS

spelling  440      abbreviations  450      use of capital letters  450
hyphenation  453      use of italics and underlining  456
forms of numbers  457

gloss Glossary  460

Index  495